Since the construction of the Xiaolangdi reservoir in 1999, the WSM has become the most dominant signal for the Huanghe. Here, we focus on the special role of the WSM in regulating the delivery of Huanghe material to the sea.

The natural boundary between flood and non-flood seasons has been altered by the Xiaolangdi dam (Yang et al., 2008), although the monsoon still brings a majority of annual basin precipitation in the flood season. Instead, the annual WSM has become a human-made “high-water period” for the lower Huanghe. The WSM, despite its short duration, plays a vital role in delivering Huanghe water and sediment to the sea. The durations of WSM in 2002–2011 averaged ∼20 days every year, yet provided 27.6% and 48.9% of the annual learn more water and sediment delivery to the sea, respectively. Notably, the WSM releases only 27.6% of the annual

water discharge, yet the released water can carry 48.9% of the annual sediment flux to the sea. Moreover, the average suspended sediment concentration of Huanghe water during WSM was as high as 17.3 kg/m3, much higher than an average of 6.9 kg/m3 in other times of the year. The WSM has therefore become a dominant regime controlling the suspended sediment concentration, grain size, water and sediment fluxes to the sea. Selleckchem ERK inhibitor Although WSM has been regularly performed over the past decade, its regime was often modified, given its both positive and negative impacts on infilling of sediment in the Xiaolangdi reservoir, riverbed morphology, geological processes at the river mouth, and biological responses of the coastal environment. The timing and duration of these WSM-controlled “high flows” are irregular (Table 5). In 2005, for instance, WSM lasted 15 days

and produced only 0.61 × 108 t sediment (31.9% of the Tacrolimus (FK506) annual flux) delivered to the sea. In 2010, WSM was performed three times with a total duration of 38 days, resulting in the transport of up to 1.45 × 108 t sediment and 90.7 × 108 m3 water to the sea, which accounted for 86.8% and 47% of the annual flux to the sea, respectively. It is clear that the WSM regime is a major control on the annual water and sediment fluxes to the sea. Another uncertainty lies in the scouring of river-bed in the lower Huanghe, a complex process involving river flow, bed features, and human-interventions. Riverbed scouring provided an important source for the sediment flux to the sea, but relied heavily on the released floodwater from the Xiaolangdi dam. Sediment transport varies more than linearly with flow (Naik and Jay, 2011). This is also true for the Huanghe when WSM was performed. In 2004, the Xiaolangdi dam released 44.6 × 108 m3 of water during WSM, and 0.665 × 108 t of sediments were scoured. In 2009, however, the released 50 × 108 m3 of freshwater only scoured 0.343 × 108 t of sediment. During 2002–2004, water discharge released from the Xiaolangdi dam was controlled <3000 m3/s.

The results of this analysis enable a new assessment of possible management options for sustainability in fragile selleckchem ecosystems in this area and elsewhere in the world. This study encompassed both the core area (SNP) and buffer

zone (BZ) of the National Park. Elevation of the study area ranges from 2300 m a.s.l. to 8848 m a.s.l. (Mt. Everest peak). The topography features very steep slopes and deeply incised valleys. The climate is strongly influenced by the summer monsoon regime with 70–80% of precipitation occurring between June and September (Salerno et al., 2010). Winters are generally cold and dry, while summers are cool and wet. The

SNP extends for 1148 km2, with rocks, glaciers, and tundra vegetation covering 69% of the total surface area (Bajracharya et al., 2010). Pastures (28%) and forests (3%) dominate the find more remaining area. Six vegetation zones occur along an altitudinal gradient: (1) lower subalpine forests (3000–3600 m a.s.l.) dominated by P. wallichiana, Abies spectabilis and Juniperus recurva; (2) upper subalpine forests (3600–3800 m a.s.l.) dominated by Betula utilis, A. spectabilis and Rhododendron spp.; (3) lower alpine shrublands (3800–4500 m a.s.l.) dominated by Juniperus spp. and Rhododendron spp.; Chloroambucil (4) upper alpine meadows (4500–5500 m a.s.l.); (5) sub-nival zone (5500–6000 m a.s.l.); (6) nival zone (above 6000 m a.s.l.) ( Fig. 1). Human interactions in the Khumbu region began ∼500 years ago when Sherpa

people migrated from Tibet (Byers, 2005). For five centuries, they extensively applied irregular forest thinning on southern slopes, reducing the stem density by removing small and easily harvestable trees to obtain firewood, timber and to increase pasture areas (Stevens, 1993). A common properties system and the presence of Sherpa field guards ensured a sustainable use of forest resources (Byers, 2005). The Private Forest Nationalization Act in 1957, however, together with increased tourism and local population in the period 1950–1980, caused significant land use changes due to the growing demand for timber and firewood (Byers, 1997 and Byers, 2005). In the last thirty years, the number of tourists has increased further, but its impact on the SNP forest landscape is still not clear. Socio-economic, anthropological and geographic studies reported “widespread deforestation” caused by human pressure in the Sagarmatha region (e.g. Bjønness, 1980, Garratt, 1981, Hinrichsen et al., 1983 and von Fürer-Haimendorf, 1984). More recent studies (Stevens, 2003 and Byers, 2005) have reported different conclusions.

3). Combining the three catchments allows us to get a complete picture of the potential impact of anthropogenic disturbances in land cover for the Ecuadorian Andes. Three sites were selected for this study (Table 1). The Llavircay catchment (24 km2), the first site, is located in the Eastern Ecuadorian Cordillera. The two other study sites, the Virgen Yacu and Panza catchments (respectively 11 and 30 km2) are located within the Pangor catchment (283 km3) in the Western Cordillera

(Fig. 4). Topography is rather similar in the three sites. Elevation varies from 1438 m to 4427 m in Pangor and from 2017 m to 3736 m in Llavircay. Rivers are deeply incised and slope gradients are very steep (Fig. 4) with half of the slopes having Raf activity slope gradients above 25° in Pangor and with one third www.selleckchem.com/products/Fulvestrant.html of the Llavircay slopes above the mean angle of internal friction (estimated at 30° according to Basabe, 1998). The bedrock geology is composed of meta-volcanic and meta-sedimentary rocks; with andesite, rhyolite, limestone, conglomerate and chert in Pangor and phyllite, shale and quartzite in Llavircay. The Pangor catchment is exposed to the Pacific Ocean and influenced by El Niño. The climate can be described as equatorial mesothermic semi-humid to humid ( Pourrut, 1994). Mean annual precipitation is about 1400 mm but there is a high inter-annual

variability, with annual precipitation ranging between 475 mm (2002) and 3700 mm (1994) ( INAMHI, 2009). On the other hand, the Llavircay catchment is subjected to a warm and humid tropical climate ( Winckell Lck et al., 1997) with mean annual precipitation of about 1330 mm and few inter-annual variability ( INAMHI, 2009). Detailed land cover maps of the three sites were constructed from aerial photographs, field surveys and a very high resolution image (for Pangor only). Aerial photographs at a 1:60,000 scale were available from the Instituto Geografico Militar for the years 1963, 1977 and 1989 (for Pangor) and 1963, 1973,

1983 and 1995 (for Llavircay). The very high resolution WorldviewII image was taken the 10th of September 2010 and has a spatial resolution of 2 m for multi-spectral bands and 0.5 m for panchromatic band. Field trips were realised in 2008, 2010 and 2011 to complete and validate the detailed land cover mapping. The land cover classification on aerial photographs was performed manually using a WILD stereoscope following Vanacker et al. (2000). The Worldview image was classified using visual interpretation of different false colour composite (band compositing) in ArcGIS. Spectral response patterns, texture analysis of the photographs (Lillesand and Keifer, 1994 and Gagnmon, 1974) and field validation allowed to distinguish eight land cover classes (Fig. 1, Fig. 2 and Fig.

Darüber hinaus trat ALS bei einem Patienten mit Leberzirrhose auf [175], einer Krankheit, bei der es wegen der beeinträchtigten Exkretion

von Mn über die Galle [174] zu Mn-Überladung kommt. Mn-Überladung wurde auch bei pathologischen und analytischen Untersuchungen von ALS-Fällen beobachtet, die in Guam oder sporadisch aufgetreten waren [176], [177], [178], [179] and [180]. Die letzten beiden Studien zeigten außerdem eine Erhöhung des MnSOD-Gehalts in den Motoneuronen der betroffenen Personen. In der Tat stützen die Umweltdaten aus den endemischen Foci für ALS in der Westpazifikregion, einschließlich der Kii-Halbinsel in MEK inhibitor drugs Japan, die Annahme, dass Mn für die Prävalenz der ALS in diesen Gebieten mTOR inhibitor verantwortlich sein könnte [181] and [182] und tragen so zur sogenannten „Mineralienhypothese” des ALS-Parkinson-Demenzkomplexes (ALS/PDC) bei. Im Mittelpunkt

der alternativen „Pflanzenhypothese” [183], [184] and [185] stehen Palmfarne, die große Mengen an Mn benötigen [186]. Jedoch wurde kürzlich in den Blättern der guamesischen Pflanze Pandanus tectorius, die traditionell als Nahrungsmittel, Arzneimittel oder als Quelle für Pflanzenfasern genutzt wird, ein hoher Mn-Gehalt dokumentiert [187] and [188]. In Anbetracht der Tatsache, dass eine Reihe von Pflanzen, insbesondere Spezies im Westpazifikraum, Mn hyperakkumulieren [189] and [190], könnten die beiden wichtigsten Umwelthypothesen zum ALS/PDC eigentlich zusammengefasst werden anstatt sich gegenseitig auszuschließen. Der kürzliche Nachweis von genetischen Varianten zweier Melastatine, TRPM2 und 7, in guamesischen Patienten mit ALS/PDC [198], Erythromycin [199] and [200] scheint interessant, da TRPM7 durch Mn stark aktiviert wird [201] und Mn in Guam in hohen Konzentrationen in der Umwelt vorkommt [188]. Daher ist es möglich, dass diese Melastatine die Akkumulation von Mn bei guamesischen ALS/PDC-Patienten vermitteln. Bei

einem erheblichen Prozentsatz der ALS-Patienten liegt in T1-gewichteten MRT-Aufnahmen Hyperintensität, ein neuroradiologisches Anzeichen für Mn-Überladung [191] and [192], entlang des motorischen Systems vor [193], [194], [195], [196] and [197], bisher gibt es jedoch noch keine Studien, in denen der Mn-Gehalt in diesen Gehirnregionen bei ALS-Patienten direkt bestimmt worden ist. Außerdem induziert Mn-Überladung Apoptose (Übersicht in Shibata et al. [202]), die zur Motoneuron-Erkrankung beiträgt [203]. Schließlich gibt es vereinzelte Berichte über ALS [204] bei Personen mit Mn-Ephedron-Syndrom, einer schweren motorischen Störung [205], von der angenommen wird, dass sie vor allem durch schweren Manganismus bei Drogenabhängigen ausgelöst wird, die sich selbst intravenöse Injektionen verabreichen.

In the 50 repeat pairs of videos, agreement in the rectal bleeding score between the 2 readings

improved from a κ of 0.47 (95% CI, 0.27–0.67) to 0.64 (95% CI, 0.47–0.80) (Table 4) when symptoms were known, but the numbers are small. It is understandable that if symptoms of rectal bleeding are present, then the threshold for describing bleeding at endoscopy (and therefore variability in that description) is reduced. Further evaluation of the impact of clinical details on endoscopists’ assessment in UC is warranted. Sensitivity to change is a valuable property of an index and is best achieved by comparing the delta change to the assessment of variance in patients unchanged after treatment of known efficacy. This needs to be assessed in a prospective Selleckchem Target Selective Inhibitor Library clinical trial, although statistical analysis in the RG7204 in vivo current cohort showed that the UCEIS was significantly different 90% of the time when the overall severity on the VAS differed by 25 points. The clinical relevance of this modeling must be regarded

as uncertain. In a further step toward its place in research, training, and clinical practice, the UCEIS is currently undergoing development by the European Crohn’s and Colitis Organisation as a training tool. This study is a first step in the validation of the UCEIS. It has confirmed the reliability of the UCEIS, even if further validation is needed to establish thresholds for remission, the clinical relevance of different UCEIS scores, and responsiveness of the UCEIS to change in disease status. The UCEIS is based on evaluation of the most severely affected area at flexible sigmoidoscopy. It is as yet unclear how an overall score might be affected by full colonoscopy or whether it might be applied in colonic segments.15 and 16 Colonoscopy could result in a higher UCEIS than sigmoidoscopy simply because a larger area is examined; because scoring is applied to the area of maximum severity, if that area lies proximal to the rectosigmoid colon, the TCL score would

increase de facto. This might, in turn, alter the overall evaluation of endoscopic severity. The UCEIS showed consistency in endoscopic evaluation and, if it can be shown to correspond with histological disease activity or validated biomarkers, may facilitate the use of smaller sample sizes in clinical trials due to increased statistical power derived from this consistency. If the UCEIS can demonstrably affect decision making or predict clinical outcome, then this will amplify its role in clinical practice. The UCEIS reliably evaluates the overall endoscopic severity of UC and accounts for 88% of the variance between endoscopists. It is simple to use, based on the sum of 3 descriptors with a score ranging from 0 to 8. The thresholds for severity and remission remain to be defined, as does the responsiveness to change. In conjunction with a training package to protect the reliability of scoring, it is ready to be further evaluated in clinical trials.

001, Fig. 4). Since the end of the 1960s, neonatal MSG treatment has been used to induce obesity in rodents.15 In this study, showed increased Lee Index, fat depots, and low body weight and naso-anal length. The same features of this hypothalamic obesity were reported.25, 26 and 27 Neonatal administration of MSG causes lesions in the hypothalamus, mainly in the arcuate check details nucleus (ARC)23 and

median eminence. The ARC is responsible for the synthesis of the growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), thus the plasma GH concentration is reduced in MSG-obese rodents.17 and 18 This hormone has lipolytic activity,28 therefore the accumulation of fat and reduction of the naso-anal length can be partly attributed to the reduction in GH. The plasma concentration of total CHOL was similar between the studied groups, but the neonatal MSG treatment caused an increase in TG and NEFA concentrations in comparison with CTL. MSG-obese mice are hypertriglyceridemic MLN0128 supplier and show an increase in

the very-low-density lipoprotein particles (VLDL).29 The same author suggests that hyperinsulinemia may play an important role in the increase of the VLDL particles. Fasting hyperinsulinemia is a common feature of obesity both in humans and animals.30 and 31 This study confirmed hyperinsulinemia in obese-MSG animals; however, they were normoglycemic, suggesting insulin resistance (IR) in this model, as shown by other authors.20 Lipogenesis is higher in the adipocytes of MSG animals.27 and 32 It is well established that insulin is lipogenic.33 Thus, hyperinsulinemia in this obesity model may play an important role in the accumulation of fat. In spite of the IR present in MSG-obese animals, the resistance may be tissue-specific for the muscle, liver, and hypothalamus, whereas adipose tissue remains sensitive to insulin.34 The association between obesity and increase in bone mass has been known for some time.8 and 9 This study shows for the first time that alveolar bone resorption of MSG-obese animals is lower Farnesyltransferase when compared with

the CTL group, and in the presence of ligature there was an increase in resorption in the lean and obese groups. Therefore, the MSG-obese animals seem to have some protective mechanism in the alveolar bone resorption process. Recent studies have shown an important participation of leptin in bone formation.13, 16, 35, 36 and 37 MSG animals show an increase in the plasma concentration of leptin.11, 22 and 38 Thus, it is suggested that this hormone may be acting in obese animals by promoting less alveolar bone resorption. In addition to leptin, bone mineral density is directly related to circulating concentrations of insulin, which is mitogenic for in vitro osteoblasts and increases in vivo bone formation when administered locally. 12 New studies are needed to show the mechanisms involved in less alveolar bone resorption in this obesity model. Several authors have suggested that obesity contributes to periodontal disease.

We have concentrated on the polychaete MK-2206 clinical trial families Spionidae, Sabellidae and Serpulidae and we are heavily indebted to overseas experts who helped in the development of the guide Kupriyanova et al. (2013).

This guide was beta tested during a two day workshop held prior to the 11th International Polychaete Conference, Sydney, August 2013 and then updated and released in December 2013 (http://www.polychaetes.australianmuseum.net.au). It is now available for sale. We hope to be able to update this guide over time and perhaps even to expand it to include other marine groups. “
“The Macondo 252 petroleum oil spill was unprecedented, and is considered the largest environmental disaster in the United States. Approximately 4.9 million barrels (200 million US gallons) of crude oil were released into the Gulf

(Graham et al., 2011 and Harzl and Pickl, 2012). Coastal shorelines in Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama and Florida were oiled. A large underwater plume of oil was identified in the deep waters of the Gulf, and it had essentially the same signature as the oil from the Macondo well (Camilli et al., 2010, Mitra et al., 2012 and White Selleck GSK2118436 et al., 2012). Water polyaromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) levels at four sampling sites along the Gulf coast were significantly elevated during the spill (Allan et al., 2012). The Exxon Valdez oil spill (EVOS) occurred in March, 1989, and 262 barrels or 11 million US gallons of crude oil were released around Prince William Sound, Alaska. Oil exposure resulted in significant mortality and physical and genetic abnormalities in Pacific herring (Marty et al., 1999). Many environmental pollutants cause immunosuppression in fish, leading to increased disease susceptibility, and PAHs are immunosuppressant (reviewed in Carlson and Zelikoff, 2008). In Puget Sound, WA, increased disease occurrence was associated with PAH exposure in flatfish and immuno-suppression of anadromous fish (reviewed in Johnson et al., 2008). Laboratory Farnesyltransferase studies demonstrated

that oil exposure resulted in decreased inflammatory cells, leading to immunosuppression (Carls et al., 1998 and Thorne and Thomas, 2008). PAHs are a component of crude oil and are carcinogenic, mutagenic, and negatively impact the marine environment. When dispersants are applied to the crude oil, the PAH bioconcentration is significantly higher resulting in higher fish mortality (Milinkovitch et al., 2011 and Allan et al., 2012). Genomic assessment of Gulf killifish tissues revealed that oil exposure caused significant changes in the biology of that fish (Whitehead et al., 2011). In general, embryos, larva and juvenile fish are more affected than other marine animals (Marchini et al., 1992 and George-Ares and Clark, 2000).

Our research group previously showed that in vivo experimental exposure to HQ at concentrations that did not evoke myelosuppression inhibited the pulmonary response to inflammatory or allergic stimuli, characterized by a reduced polymorphonuclear and mononuclear cell influx into BALF ( Macedo et al., 2006 and Macedo et al., 2007). While the acquired immune response is related to impaired anaphylactic immunoglobulin production, the role of HQ exposure GSK J4 price on the innate immune response is not fully understood ( Ferreira et al., 2006, Macedo et al.,

2007 and Ribeiro et al., 2011). By exposing mice to low levels of HQ by inhalation and subsequently evoking a lung endotoxin-induced acute inflammation, it is herein shown that in Trichostatin A in vitro vivo HQ exposure impairs circulating mononuclear cell migration into the inflamed area. A direct inhibitory action of HQ on MCP-1 secretion by lung cells may be directly related to impaired mononuclear cell chemotaxis. To the best of our knowledge, this is a newly discovered mechanism of in vivo HQ toxicity, which could affect the onset and resolution

of infectious lung diseases in smokers and inhabitants of polluted areas. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Escherichia coli (serotype 026:B6) and hydroquinone (purity 99%) were purchased from Sigma–Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA); human recombinant MCP-1 was obtained from eBioscience (San Diego, CA, USA); rat recombinant interferon gamma (IFN-γ) was purchased from Thermo Scientific (Waltham, MA, USA); all RT-PCR reagents were purchased from Promega Corporation (Madison, WI, USA); the MCP-1 ELISA kit and the monoclonal antibodies phycoerythrin (PE)-labelled anti-l-selectin, anti-PECAM-1, anti-F4/80 and anti-CD19, and fluorescein

isothiocyanate (FITC)-labelled anti-β2-integrin, anti-β3-integrin, anti-CD11b and anti-CD3e were purchased from BD Pharmingen (San Diego, CA, USA). Penicillin, streptomycin and DMEM medium were obtained from Invitrogen (Carlsbad, CA, USA). Panótico® was purchased from Laborclin (Pinhais, PR, Brazil) Pyruvate dehydrogenase lipoamide kinase isozyme 1 and the RPMI-1640 culture medium and foetal bovine serum (FBS) were obtained from Vitrocell (Campinas, SP, Brazil). Hydroquinone solution was prepared using saline (0.9% NaCl) containing 5% ethanol. The LPS was solubilized in saline solution. Male 18-week-old Swiss mice were supplied by the Animal House of the School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Chemistry Institute of the University of Sao Paulo. The animals were fed a standard pellet diet and water ad libitum. All procedures were performed according to the guidelines of the Brazilian Society of Science of Laboratory Animals (SBCAL) for the proper care and use of experimental animals, and the experiments were approved by local ethics committee (License number 196). The animals were anaesthetized before each experimental procedure with ketamine/xylazine (80:8 mg/kg; i.p.), thus preventing stress.

, 2005), induced by a dynamical adjustment of the oceanic circulation. Large changes of opposite sign in some cases

between these studies are presumably due to different models, parametrization and experimental set-up. Polar regions have also been shown to be affected by these biophysical feedbacks (Gnanadesikan and Anderson, 2009, Lengaigne et al., 2009, Patara et al., 2012 and Wetzel et al., 2006): the surface warming in summer resulting from the spring bloom triggering a reduction of sea-ice thickness and concentration. Manizza (2005) demonstrates that biophysical feedbacks prominently enhances the amplitude of the seasonal cycle of Sea Surface Temperature (SST) and mixed layer depth at the mid and high latitude oceans. This study aims at assessing the respective influence of the physical parameterization changes from OPA8 to NEMOv3.2 along see more with the implementation of the interactive biogeochemical module in the coupled system on the mean climate state. Various aspects of the North Atlantic climate variability has been studied in both versions of the model and were shown to be very similar: the atmospheric variability (Msadek and Frankignoul, 2008Gastineau et al., 2012), multidecadal SST variability (Msadek and Frankignoul, 2008 and Persechino et al., 2012Marini and Frankignoul, 2013) air–sea interactions (Gastineau

and Frankignoul, 2011). Bi-decadal energy peak in the North Atlantic is present in both versions (Born and Mignot, 2011 and Escudier

et Trichostatin A concentration al., 2012), although with different mechanisms, as well as in piCtrl_noBio. Extensive comparison of CMIP3 and CMIP5 variability patterns in the Pacific shows that both versions correlate very well with observations (Lengaigne, pers. com.). They are also fairly similar in terms of El Niño-Southern Oscillations characteristics (Bellenger et al., 2013). Section 2 describes the model configurations and the experiments used for this purpose. Section 3 analyses a series of sensitivity tests with ocean-only simulations while coupled models are analysed in Sections 4 and 5. The effect of implementing the biogeochemical module is firstly analysed separately, as it appears to be very important and sometimes contradictory with previous studies. Conclusions are given in Section O-methylated flavonoid 6. This study focuses on the outcomes of two sets of simulations, the first one using ocean simulations forced by atmospheric reanalyses while the other ones are coupled to other components of the IPSL earth system model. All simulations use the global Océan Parallèlisé (OPA) ocean general circulation model (OGCM, Madec et al., 1999). This model solves the primitive equations on the Arakawa C grid, with a second order centred finite difference scheme. It assumes the Boussinesq and hydrostatic approximations, the incompressibility hypothesis, and uses a free-surface formulation (Roullet and Madec, 2000).

, 1999 and ver Hoef and Frost, 2003). Saulitis et al. (2000, p. 102) commented that “low harbor seal numbers may account for the fact that Prince William Sound transients [mammal-eating killer whales] consistently prey on a species [Dall’s porpoise] more difficult to capture than harbor

seals.” Matkin (2004: 3) added: “harbor seals are a known major prey item of transient killer whales and we are concerned that sea otters Obeticholic Acid purchase could also become an important prey due to the severe decline and lack of recovery of harbor seals in the region [southwestern PWS]. Bodkin et al. (2002) noted that, with an average of 77 otters at NKI, an extrinsic factor that caused an added annual loss of only three otters would offset the population growth of 4% per year (0.04 × 77 = 3) observed elsewhere in WPWS at the time. One killer whale could easily consume this number of otters in just 1 day (and Lapatinib purchase still not satisfy its daily caloric requirements; Williams et al., 2004). Accordingly, it seems that killer whale predation should be considered

a potential factor affecting population trends of sea otters at Knight Island. Alaska natives legally harvest sea otters for subsistence or handicrafts, and these harvests may have affected population trends in WPWS. In parts of southeast Alaska, the rate of reported harvest (averaging up to 8% per year) has apparently been sufficient to limit or depress otter numbers (Esslinger and Bodkin, 2009). The same may be true for parts of WPWS. After the Exxon Valdez spill, at least 139 otters were harvested throughout the oil spill area of WPWS (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpublished data, 1990–2009), potentially confounding the assessment of population recovery. Harvests were especially high at Knight Island: in 2000 check details and 2003, natives took 5–10% of the 200–300 otters living there (data were inadequate to trace losses to the

northern or southern halves of the island). That these harvests exceeded the highest population growth rate observed in other portions of WPWS suggests that they could have caused a population decline at Knight Island. By contrast, since 1998 only two otters were harvested from Montague Island, which harbors a larger sea otter population than Knight Island ( Fig. 3a reflects only a portion of Montague). Only two sea otters were reported harvested at Knight Island during 2005–2009. This coincides with the increase in otter numbers at NKI (Fig. 3b). Whereas the effects of subsistence harvests on otter numbers at NKI remain equivocal, they cannot be discounted as a factor that has affected the dynamics of the otter population in this area. Ironically, one of the largest impacts to PWS following the Exxon Valdez spill – aside from the oil itself – was the substantial increase in human activity directed at assessing impacts in the most heavily-oiled areas.