strategy and choice behavior that is disadvantageous in the long run) compared with the PRLT, and, therefore, we have chosen to discuss only the IGT and the two-choice Dactolisib solubility dmso prediction task in this section. Although the PRLT also comprises a decision making or choice component, the PRLT is not seen as a gambling

task but a task measuring flexibility of learned behavior based Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical on contingencies without the strategic element of long-term versus short-term advantages. Memory Immediate memory (and working memory: WM), is often assessed with the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) Digit Span or Memory Span task, requiring the person to remember a string of digits, letters or words. The N-back task is a continuous WM task which requires subjects to indicate whether the current letter matches the one from n (usually 1–3) steps earlier (Kirchner 1958). Delayed memory is addressed in the immediate memory task/delayed memory task (IMT/DMT), a task similar to the N-back task but Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical with additional options (Dougherty et al. 2002), such as delaying the recognition phase up to several minutes. While these tasks mainly differ in the delay of

the recognition phase, also the memory load differs in several tasks. For Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical example, in the N-back task, working memory load can be increased by incorporating more steps back to be remembered in a short-time period, while the IMT/DMT can increase working memory load during a longer time period Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical up to several minutes according to the task’s design. Memory span tasks can also be made more challenging (increasing working memory load), that is, by instructing the individual to name the memory sets backwards. The WAIS digit span is similar to other memory span tasks, but is part Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of the more comprehensive full WAIS measuring both verbal intelligence quotient (IQ) and performance IQ. During a WM span task, male smokers performed worse than nonsmoking male HCs (Greenstein and Kassel 2009). Ecstasy users performed worse than HCs on a verbal DMT, and total ecstasy use was negatively associated with memory

performance (Schilt et al. 2008). On a delayed memory recognition task, administration of a nicotine patch improved performance accuracy in nonsmokers (Froeliger et al. 2009). With regard to acute abstinence effects, in male smokers, memory performance declined across a 60-min test period, whereas aspects of Calpain calculation and association tasks improved over time (Sakurai and Kanazawa 2002). Cognitive flexibility, attention, and planning Attention is a complex process that can be divided in different aspects. For instance, sustained attention is the ability to maintain attention for a longer period on a certain task which can be measured using a sustained attention task, whereas divided attention is the ability to shift attention between different task demands.