3A and B). In addition, the expression of CD69 and CD25 showed no difference before or after Con A injection between

the two groups (Fig. 3C and D). Some studies have suggested that FasL, which is upregulated upon stimulation in NKT cells, may act as an effector molecule during liver injury, even though such a role is controversial in Con A-induced hepatitis [29, 30]. We observed that the expression of FasL on the surface of NKT cells after injection of Con A was similar between the two groups (Fig. 3C and D). PXD101 clinical trial Collectively, these data indicate that RA does not modulate the activation of NKT cells. Next, we examined the effects of RA on other cells, such as Kupffer cells and other APCs that might participate in the regulatory effects of RA on NKT cells. As illustrated in Fig. 3E, the percentages of

Kupffer cells before and after Con A injection were comparable in each group (Supporting Information Fig. 4A). In addition, RA tended to reduce ALT SB203580 activity in Kupffer cell-depleted mice (Supporting Information Fig. 4B). Moreover, the expression of costimulatory molecules or CD1d was not modulated by RA (Fig. 3F and Supporting Information Fig. 4C). Overall, these data indicate that treatment with RA reduces IFN-γ and IL-4 but not TNF-α production in NKT cells without affecting Kupffer cells or other APCs. We next examined whether RA could also regulate α-GalCer-induced hepatitis. Consistent with Con A-induced hepatitis, RA reduced the levels of IFN-γ and IL-4 but not TNF-α in α-GalCer-induced hepatitis (Fig. 4A). Although

α-GalCer-induced hepatitis is mediated by activated NKT cells, Morin Hydrate its pathogenic mechanism is not consistent with Con A-induced liver injury. For example, whereas TNF-α is important in both liver injury models, IFN-γ is critical in Con A-induced hepatitis but not in α-GalCer-induced hepatitis [17, 30]. We found that treatment with RA failed to regulate α-GalCer-mediated liver injury, with comparable ALT levels to the control (Fig. 4B), correlating with an unaltered level of TNF-α (Fig. 4A). These results indicate that RA can alleviate Con A-induced hepatitis but not α-GalCer-induced hepatitis. The differential regulation of RA on cytokine production can explain the contrary effects of RA in two hepatitis models. The observations described above led us to hypothesize that RA acts on NKT cells directly. Therefore, we examined the effects of RA on liver MNC cultures in vitro to exclude the environmental factors present in the liver. Consistent with the in vivo results, in the presence of RA, the secretion of IFN-γ and IL-4 but not TNF-α was reduced compared to vehicle in the presence of Con A or α-GalCer stimulation (Fig. 5A and B). RA has been suggested to act upon various cell types via its specific receptors.