The 2D binding was characterized by not only a fast on rate, but also a fast off rate, both of which were dependent on the intact membrane organization as judged by sensitivity to extraction of cholesterol and disruption of the actin cytoskeleton. In the second study, Huppa et al.57 measured TCR–pMHC binding using FRET in T cells interacting with pMHC on planar lipid bilayers (Fig. 4).

The authors labelled the TCR with an Fv fragment find more conjugated with FRET donor and attached the FRET acceptor on the peptide in the MHC. The binding of TCR to the pMHC was expected to bring the labels within 4·1 nm of each other. Measurements of FRET agreed with the predicted distance, indicating that the signal selleck screening library is primarily reflecting the interaction of the TCR with the pMHC, but not bystander effects. By using saturating amounts of the labels and calibration of the fluorescence intensities in the images, the authors were able to derive the concentrations of the TCR, pMHC and the TCR–pMHC complex in the synapse, which allowed calculation of the mean 2D affinity. When converted to 3D affinity using the volume of the synaptic cleft, the in situ 2D affinity was stronger then what had been reported in solution measurements. The binding was best inside microclusters, although with great variability throughout

the synapse. To measure the lifetime of the individual TCR–pMHC bonds, the authors turned to observation of the FRET on the single molecule level. By using substoichiometric amounts of the labels, the authors could detect individual spots of the TCR–pMHC complexes that showed single step appearance and single step disappearance. This indicated that the signal is coming Vitamin B12 from individual TCR–pMHC complexes that formed and dissociated during the experiments. After carefully correcting for the effects of photobleaching, the authors obtained

the half-lives and eventually the off rates of the TCR–pMHC interactions. The data showed again that the off rates are faster than what had been measured in solution and this was dependent on an intact actin cytoskeleton. Collectively, these two studies indicate that TCR recognition of pMHC in vivo is not only more robust, but also more dynamic than was suggested by the weak 3D affinity. This was because of the fast on rate of the binding in the synapse, suggesting that receptor orientation and positive cooperative effects in TCR microclusters have a dramatic effect. The fast off rate on the other hand indicates that there is mechanical tension in the immunological synapse. Importantly, the fast dynamics of TCR–pMHC binding implies that serial engagement of many TCRs by a few pMHCs is probably a dominant feature of efficient T-cell activation. Although no data are currently available for the 2D binding kinetics of the BCR, a recent study by Liu et al.