, 1987). We used a bootstrap to confirm that neither the bias in the preferred orientations of the F− cells nor possible spatial clustering of F+ cells artifactually caused the statistical difference. On each bootstrap repetition, for each sharply selective F+ cell, a sharply selective F− cell was chosen randomly within a 50 μm radius. In this way, we obtained a set of randomly chosen sharply selective F− cells that were matched in number and spatial location to the sharply selective F+ cells. The distribution of these

LY2157299 randomly chosen F− cells was compared with the entire set of F− cells with a Kuiper’s test across a wide range of p values. Any significant difference is a false positive. We simulated 100,000 repetitions for each p value and for each clone, and false-positive rates were obtained. We compared the differences in preferred orientations (ΔOri) of all the possible pairs among F+ cells and the ΔOri of all the possible pairs between F+ and F− cells. Again, a bootstrap was used to correct the p values obtained from the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Selleck trans-isomer test. We obtained a set of randomly chosen sharply selective F− cells, matched in number and spatial location to the sharply selective F+ cells, in the same way as described above.

By comparing differences of ΔOri among this population and ΔOri between this population and the entire F− population using a Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, false-positive rates were obtained across a wide range of p values. The p value was corrected with the false-positive rate obtained from the bootstrap at a p value threshold obtained by comparing actual clonally related and unrelated pairs. We thank Dr. R. Clay Reid for his support and discussion and Dr. Toshihiko

Hosoya and Dr. Satoru Kondo for discussion. We thank Garrett Banks for technical support. We appreciate the technical support from the Research Support Center of the Graduate School of Medical Sciences at Kyushu University. This work was supported by grants from CREST-JST, the Takeda Science Foundation, the Uehara Foundation and Kowa Foundation (to K.O.), and the David and Lucille Packard Foundation (to C.L). “
“Altruistic acts involve costs for the actor and benefits for another individual. Altruism in most animal Rutecarpine species is directed toward genetically related individuals (Hamilton, 1964). In contrast, human altruism goes far beyond helping kin. A significant number of people help strangers and reciprocate favors even when they do not know their interaction partners and will never meet them again (Camerer, 2003 and Henrich et al., 2005). Human history has repeatedly shown that some people are even willing to risk their lives in order to contribute to some of the most important public goods—democracy and liberty. However, there is also enormous individual heterogeneity in human altruism, and the sources of individual variation are still very poorly understood.