180,181 A single open study reported

effects of bilateral high-frequency DBS of the white matter adjacent to the subgenual cingulate cortex in six highly treatment-resistant depressed patients (five of whom had failed ECT).182 In this study, four of the six patients showed an antidepressant response at the 6-month study end point, with three in remission and the fourth near remission. No significant adverse events were noted. In this study, antidepressant response was associated with regional blood flow changes in brain regions clearly implicated in the pathophysiology Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of depression (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, subgenual cingulate, perigenual anterior cingulate, hypothalamus, brain stem).182 DBS appears to modulate function within discrete neural networks,183 although its actual mechanisms Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of action are largely obscure. DBS may

help restore normal neural network function by decreasing function in abnormally active “nodes,” by activating dormant compensatory mechanisms, or by some combination of these two. If DBS is confirmed to be an effective treatment for some patients with depression, further investigation of its mechanisms Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of action may greatly improve our under-standing of the neurobiology of normal and abnormal mood regulation.

Conclusion Depression remains a prevalent and somewhat difficult-to-treat disease despite decades of neurobiological research and significant advances in the understanding of its pathophysiology. buy Crenolanib Current and future research efforts promise to further expand our knowledge of the biological bases for depression Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and will likely contribute a number of new antidepressant treatments. These prospective treatments include several novel drugs targeting neuromodulatory systems beyond the monoamines and focal brain stimulation techniques which directly target neural networks involved in depression. Over the next Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase several years, we expect significant advances to occur in our understanding and treatment of depression. Acknowledgments This work was supported by the NIH/National Institute of Mental Health (MH 58922, MH 42088 and MH 69056) (CBN) and by the Emory Mentored Clinical Research Scholars Program through a grant from NIH/National Center for Research Resources (RR 17643) (PEH).