, 2005, 2008; Nguyen et al., 2007). Whereas previous studies have examined wag31-dependent functions by expressing the gene with an acetamide-inducible promoter (Kang et al., 2008), a tetracycline-inducible promoter (Hamasha et al., 2009), or a heat shock promoter (Kang et al., 2005), this current study is the first

to examine wag31Mtb expression using its native promoter. This promoter appears to be upregulated by the mycobacterial stringent response (Figs 1 and 2). The stringent response is necessary for persistent M. tuberculosis infections learn more in mammalian hosts (Dahl et al., 2003; Klinkenberg et al., 2010). Here, we report that the stringent response is needed for higher expression of wag31, suggesting a potential connection between Wag31 and virulence. Although Wag31 is involved in mycobacterial cell wall synthesis, Wag31 may be playing some alternative roles during the infection process. Cao et al. (2008) recently reported that Wag31Mtb stimulates XCL2 expression in macrophages. XCL2 is a chemokine in macrophages that serves as a chemoattractant for CD8+ and CD4+ T cells. Therefore, wag31Mtb expression may contribute to

the formation of granulomas that are extremely diminished in size selleck compound and in numbers in animals infected with M. tuberculosisΔrel strains (Dahl et al., 2003; Klinkenberg et al., 2010). Although traditionally thought to function as a host defense strategy, the role of the granuloma is being re-evaluated as providing a potential benefit to mycobacterial pathogens (Flynn, 2004).

Also, elevated wag31 expression may enhance M. tuberculosis survival in macrophages by enhancing resistance to oxidative stress. Wag31 may do this by stabilizing penicillin-binding protein 3 (PBP3) against cleavage by the M. tuberculosis metalloprotease Rv2869c. This metalloprotease is essential for M. tuberculosis cells heptaminol to infect mice lungs, and it likely acts to regulate the bacterial lipid and membrane composition necessary for survival in the host (Madinoshima & Glickman, 2005). However, without protection by Wag31 binding, PBP3 is susceptible to deleterious cleavage by Rv2869c, leading to reduced survival of M. tuberculosis within macrophages (Mukherjee et al., 2009). We thank Christine Davitt for assistance with TEM analysis, Gerhard Munske for help with proteomic identification of Wag31, and Mike Konkel for assistance with antibody production. This research was supported by internal funds from the University of Minnesota Duluth. “
“Eradication of Helicobacter pylori with traditional therapy often fails in clinical treatment. As a result, a novel efficacious therapeutic agent is strongly needed. Allitridi, a proprietary garlic derivative, has been successfully used to treat both systemic fungal and bacterial infections in China. Our previous study has shown a dose-dependent inhibitory effect of allitridi on H. pylori growth. However, the antibacterial mode of action of allitridi is still unclear.